Han Dynasty and Augustus Caesar’s Roman Empire - 1007 Words

In the forty years of Augustus Caesar’s reign—from 27 B.C. to A.D. 14—he created a new order that was the beginning of the Roman Empire. In 202 B.C., the year in which the Romans defeated the Carthaginians at the battle of Zama, Liu Pang won control of China and established the Han dynasty. The Roman Empire as well as its Eastern contemporary, the Han Dynasty, in China established strong central governments but experienced a decline caused by both internal and external influences; however, China leaders were more effective in using native conventions and values to maintain control over diverse people and regions than the emperors in Rome. The Han rulers used a system of choosing government officials on the basis of merit by introducing a primitive examination and recommendation system. By the first century B.C. the government employed more than 130,000 bureaucrats, or one for every 400 to 500 people in the empire. Although the examinations were theoreticall y open to all Chinese except merchants, the bureaucrats were drawn largely from the property-owner class, because affluence was needed to obtain the education to pass the examination. Consequently, the division of Chinese society transformed into a separation between landowner-bureaucrats and peasants. This system for officials influenced Chinese civilization for 2000 years. Students were expected to learn the teachings of Confucius, as well as Chinese history and law. By creating a group of well-trainedShow MoreRelatedEssay on Ap World Similarities and Differences China and Rome1144 Words   |  5 PagesHan China and Rome The Han Dynasty and the Roman Empire both had a great influence not only on its people but the world as a whole. The two had similar and different methods of political control. Both ruled their people under a bureaucracy, they had civil servants to maintain their large empires, and their foundations were made of great and strong rulers. Aside from the similarities they also had several differences. Take China for example, they focused more on Confucianism and they had a MandateRead MoreEssay about Comparison on Qin and Augustus Caesar1177 Words   |  5 Pages Comparing Augustus and Qin Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi was crowned king in 246 BC during the Warring States era (475-221 BC). Two centuries later, Caesar Augustus founded the Roman Empire and became Rome’s first Emperor, ruling from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD. Both emperors ruled with distinct and individual morals in which they laid upon their society. Both rulers utilized military victories, new code laws, and established a sense of unity throughout the land. Each contribution to their stateRead MoreQin Shi Huangdi and Ausustus Caesar1191 Words   |  5 Pageslife have always wanted and tried to leave their personal touches on society. From Qin Shi Huangdi of China as far over to Augustus Caesar of Rome, they all wanted people to recognize, respect and remember them until long after their time. These two rulers in particular left their mark by erecting pillars of greatness and importance to history. Qin Shi Huangdi and Augustus Caesar made claims of events and how successful they were at what the y accomplished in their time of power. Some of theseRead MoreRome s Creation Of A Mediterranean Empire3215 Words   |  13 Pages Rome’s Creation of a Mediterranean Empire, 753 b.c.e.–330 c.e. A. Geography and Resources 1. Italy and Sicily are at a crossroads of the Mediterranean and serve as a link between Africa and Europe. Rome is at a crossroads of the Italian peninsula. 2. Italy’s natural resources included navigable rivers, forests, iron, a mild climate, and enough arable land to support a large population of farmers whose surplus product and labor could be exploited by the Roman state. B. A Republic of Farmers, 753–31

Rembrandts Samson Tells a Riddle at His Feast - 1145 Words

The distinguished painting, Samson Tells a Riddle at his Feast, by artist Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn, interprets the knowledgeable scene of a biblical figure, Samson, and his wife at their wedding feast. Judges 14 of the Bible details the background story of the painting – how Samson met a Philistine woman and chose her as his wife. Before he can take his new bride’s hand in marriage, Samson is withheld by a dangerous lion. Samson, however, is determined to join his lady and slays the beast. Oddly, Samson finds a swarm of bees surrounding a honeycomb inside the lion’s carcass. From this discovery, Samson formulates a riddle, which he tells to all of the guests at the feast of his wedding. The riddle goes like this: â€Å"Out of the eater came†¦show more content†¦His choice to withhold this information from her is correct in judgment, however, because she will in fact spread the answer to the riddle eventually in the future. Samson’s position in the painting is facing away from his wife and leaning suspensefully out of his seat. This may be a hint that Samson will soon leave his wife later in the story. Another evidentiary observation about Samson’s wife is that she clearly feels that she doesn’t belong, even at her own dinner party! Everything in her appearance is completely different from the others in the painting. Not only is she sitting in solitude, but she is the only character in the painting whose gaze is toward the viewer. It’s as if the viewers of the painting are the only ones who will pay her any sort of attention. Her posture is similar to the way one would take a portrait. In fact, Samson Tells a Riddle at his Feast could be viewed as a lonely portrait of a single woman, despite the busy crowd of people among her. How ironic that Rembrandt has focused this entire painting around making Samson’s wife the center of the painting, especially when she remains nameless and does not even appear in the painting’s title, Samson Tells a Riddle at his Feast. This face could also hint that Rembrandt himself is ignoring Samson’s wife, by forgetting her in the title. Samson, after all, is not primarily featured in this painting. Another connection and element of clarity is introduced once Rembrandt’sShow MoreRelatedA Brief Look at Rembrandt980 Words   |  4 Pagesmany hardships in his life, the death of all his children and his wives who perished before he did, as well as going financially bankrupt. Despite hard times, Rembrandt kept doing what he loved and used those experiences to explore the inner psychology of his subjects. The Wedding Feast of Samson and The Conspiracy of the Batavians Under Claudius Civilis were painted numerous years apart and are a reflection of what the artist was going through. The Wedding feast of Samson comes from the Old

Social networks as an advertising-based model Free Essays

1.0 Introduction. 1. We will write a custom essay sample on Social networks as an advertising-based model or any similar topic only for you Order Now 1 Background. â€Å"Social networks, such as Facebook and MySpace have witnessed a rapid growth in their membership. Some of these businesses have tried an advertising-based model with very limited success. However, these businesses have not fully explored the power of their members to influence each other’s behaviour. This potential viral or social effect can have significant impact on the success of these companies as well as provide a unique new marketing opportunity for traditional companies†. (Iyengar et al 2009) This research is focused on the impact of online social networks versus word of mouth in product referencing. It is an attempt to investigate the impact of the rapid growth of online social networks on the consumer and to investigate the possibility of it becoming a useful alternative to traditional word of mouth.According to Pedro Domingo (2005) traditionally, social network models have been descriptive, rather than predictive: they are developed at a very common level, normally with only a few global parameters, and are not practical for making concrete predictions of the future behaviour of the network. Until recent times, this was mainly due to lack of data: the networks available for tentative study were small and not many, and contained only nominal information about each node. Fortunately, the growth of the Internet has assisted its development. Substantial quantities of data are now available on very large social networks via blogs, social networking sites, knowledge-sharing sites, online gaming, newsgroups, chat rooms, etc. 2.0 Preliminary Literature Review. 2.1 Word of Mouth (WOM). Word of mouth (WOM) has been recognized over the years as a significant influence on how people think, feel and react. Writings on interpersonal persuasion has ancient origins. Aristotle produced what has been called ‘the most important single work in the history of speech in the fourth century BC (Thonssen and Beard, 1948, p. 63). The book Rhetoric (Aristotle, trans. Roberts, 1924) highlights the influential impact of three artistic proofs inhibited in a speaker these are: ethos, pathos and logos. Ethos, the ethical and personal appeals of a speaker, consists of how the speaker projects personal characteristics so as to induce belief on the part of the listener. Pathos entails the emotional features of the speaker. Logos or logical appeals in the form of examples and enthymemes were regarded by Aristotle as the basis of reasoned discourse. Some 23 centuries later there now exists an immense literature on interpersonal communication (Littlejohn, 1990). In a Marketing communication context, word of mouth (WOM) is a consumer-dominated channel, the sender is usually independent of the market. It is therefore perceived to be more reliable, credible, and trustworthy by consumers compared to firm-initiated communications (Schiffman Kanuk, 1995; Arndt, 1967). Traditional communications theory considers WOM as having a powerful influence on behaviour, especially on consumers’ information search, evaluation, and subsequent decision making (Cox 1963) It provides information relating to product performance and the social and psychological cost of the purchase decision (Cox, 1963).Research generally supports the claim that WOM is more influential on behaviour than other marketer-controlled sources. Indeed, it has been observed that WOM can be more influential than neutral print sources such as Which and Consumer Reports (Herr et al., 1991). 2.2 Online Social Networks. The term â€Å"Social network† can certainly not be described a new term, as individuals we are all involved in at least one form of social network and most of us especially the youth, are likely actively involved in several simultaneously, both â€Å"real† and online. The term social network can be defined as any web-based services that allow individuals to construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system. The nature and nomenclature of these connections may vary from site to site. (Boyd, et.al 2007). What makes social network sites unique is not that they allow individuals to meet strangers, but rather that they enable users to articulate and make visible their social networks. This can result in connections between individuals that would not otherwise be made, but that is often not the goal, and these meetings are frequently between â€Å"latent ties† who share some offline connection. (Haythornthwaite, 2005) 2.3 The Development of Online Social Networks The first recognizable social network site was launched in 1997 this was known as SixDegrees.com, this website provided its members with the opportunity to create profiles list their friends and by 1998 provided the option of surfing their friends list ultimately leading to the interactive nature of our social networks today. However before 1997 other website and internet tools had already implored some one or more of this features (Boyd, et.al 2007), profiles where already being used by dating sites, ICQ buddy lists; the pioneer of the current crop of Internet instant messenger clients supported the listing of Friends, however this list was not visible to others. Classmates.com, allowed its members to connect with their old school mates and surf the network for others who were also connected, but members could not develop profiles or list Friends. SixDegree.com became the first site to combine these three main features of social networks as we know them today. SixDegress.com was able to attract millions of users worldwide however its progress was halted and eventually shut down services in 2000. Reasons for its failure were attributed to its inability to become a sustainable business; the fact that its users did not have an extensive network of friends online and their non responsive nature to meeting strangers online also its users complained that the website offered little to do other than adding new friends, its founder believes that SixDegrees.com was simply ahead of its time (A. Weinreich, personal communication, July 11, 2007) cited from Boyd et al (2007). In 2001 Ryze.com was launched to assist its member by leveraging on each other’s business networks. The founder reports that he first introduced the site to his friends—primarily members of the San Francisco business and technology community, including the entrepreneurs and investors behind many future SNSs (Boyd, et.al 2007).To complement the features of their business website in 2002 the management of Ryze.com Launched Friendster. It was created to compete with Match.com, a profitable online dating site (Cohen, 2003). Friendster gained footing amongst three groups of early adopters who ultimately defined the image of the site these where; bloggers, attendees of the Burning Man arts festival, and gay men. The website through these early adopters was able to grow to over 300,000 users through word of mouth before traditional press coverage began in May 2003 (O’Shea, 2003). As Friendster became more popular the site developed technical and social difficulties, th is lead to a massive reduction in its users. However as its popularity faded in the United States and Europe its popularity increased in countries like the Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia, and Indonesia (Goldberg, 2007). Between 2003 and date several social network sites have been created the most influential of these is most likely Facebook. Facebook was started off in early 2004 as a Harvard-only SNS (Cassidy, 2006). To become a member, a user had to have a harvard.edu email address this trend continued when it spread to other institutions as users were required to login using their school email addresses this made Facebook appear as an intimate social networking site that still offered all the exposure (Boyd, et.al 2007). In more recent years, Twitter has also become a leader in social networking. 2.4 Marketing on Social Networks versus Word of Mouth. According to a report carried entitled, The European Social Media and Email Marketing Study on the Digital Dialogue between Facebook, Twitter and Email conducted by Volker Wiewer and Rolf Anweiler (2010), the usage of social networks is on a steady increase, in the UK out of 1045 respondents, 91% agreed to receiving at least one form of commercial communication through an online tool including email and newsletters. Facebook was the most popular amongst respondents and a further 94% acknowledged to either having an account or at least having knowledge of facebook and amongst these users the average number of friends was 77 users. However only 34% of the respondents agreed to engaging the typical forms of product or brand awareness on these social networks. These typical tools are however limited to; being a fan of/friend of a company/brand profile on a social network or a follower of a company/brand on twitter Word of mouth on the other hand has been shown to influence a variety of conditions: awareness, expectations, perceptions, attitudes, behavioural intentions and behaviour, (Buttle 1998). It has been described by scholars as one of the oldest and most powerful marketing tools however, it can also be negative. According to Arndt (1971), it can be said that negative word of mouth is more powerful than positive word of mouth. White House Office of Consumer Affairs suggested that about ‘90%or more people who are disappointed with the service they receive will not patronize the service again. Furthermore, each of those unhappy clients will narrate his or her story to a minimum of 9 other people, and 13%of those unhappy former clients will tell their stories to more than 20 people’. It is not reported to how many these WOM recipients retell the story. (Buttle 1998) 3.0 Aims and Objectives. This study will attempt to obtain an understanding of marketing on online social networks. Evaluate the impact if any, of marketing on online social networks. Attempt to Identify the range of online social networks. It would explore the possibility of substituting traditional word of mouth with marketing on online social networks. Explore the levels of acceptance of online social networks versus word of mouth through product recommendation. Consider the implication of negative online social networks marketing versus word of mouth. 4.0 Research methodology The complexity of the topic area combined with the nature of the research to be undertaken makes it preferable and possibly necessary to employ qualitative research methods in the gathering and interpretation of the research evidence. According to Leedy and Ormrod (2005) qualitative research usually requires adequate planning and preparation, thus it is decisive in researches involving description, interpretation, verification and evaluation. This section will be divided into two parts namely research design and data collection. 4.1 Research Design According to research design is categorised in three forms which are the exploratory, descriptive and casual, Chisnall (2005) according to the specific nature of the research in question. Semi-structured interviews will be organised as it will serve as an effective means of collecting people’s views/perceptions on the research area as well as providing a means of observing their body language and expressions while giving feedback to the posed questions. A questionnaire will also be designed and distributed to gather some general information. Focus groups may also be engaged depending on the possibility of getting a number of quality respondents together at the same time. A qualitative analysis and interpretation of their perceptions and feedback will be carried out subsequently. This form of research design was chosen because, previous studies in this area have used qualitative research to arrive at analysis, thus utilising the same type of research methods provides the opportunity to agree with or challenge previous research confidently and logically. In addition, due to the nature of the topic being studied and the nature of information or evidence that is required, the interview seems to be most ideal for getting the needed information. This is by virtue of the fact that it helps to get a more detailed insight into people’s individual perceptions and opinions as opposed to the other methods of gathering information. The questionnaire will also be most useful in getting a more general opinion on the subject matter. 4.2 Implementation 100 Questionnaires with a maximum of 15-20 questions will be distributed amongst individuals at random. Due to the nature of the study respondents can be chosen at random as the quality of information required is not specific to a gender or speciality. Interviews will be conducted at random amongst users of online social networks to develop a detailed idea of how often products are marketed via their social network. If required a focus group will be created to gain information on a more specific aspect on this study. Additionally previous literature and published research relative to the area of the study will be reviewed 4.3 Data Collection Qualitative information on word of mouth and Online social network would be sourced through individual face to face in-depth interviews. This aims to achieve individual perceptions on the subject matter with comparisons made at the final stage. The in-depth interview is preferred since this is an exploratory research and it would give the respondent the opportunity to talk freely about situations and events which this research aims to cover. This approach will also provide me an opportunity to query answers whenever I need the respondent to further explain their responses (Saunders et al, 2007). This will however be done with extreme caution, in order to avoid making the respondent uncomfortable or unable to provide pragmatic answers To attain a complete perspective, both primary and secondary methods of data collection are being proposed to undertake this study. Chisnall (2005) defines primary data collection as the collation of any data or information that has been collected for the first time through any of the following means, experimentation, observation or questionnaires. The primary data for this research will be sourced from information gathered through questionnaire, interviews and if required focus groups. Questionnaires will be developed using both open ended and closed ended questions with respondents assured of the security of the information disclosed and the protection of their civil rights. To maintain a consistence in the information collected, the same questions used in the questionnaires will be administered during the interviews and if changes are made they will be properly documented. Secondary data on the other hand, is information that has already been gathered by previous scholars who have researched this topic or other relevant subject areas surrounding this topic. This information will be sourced from the public domains which are relevant to the course of research. According to Saunders et al (2009) the study of secondary data will consist of a comprehensive examination and critical review of academic literature to gain insight into areas set out within the aforementioned objectives, and also a review of key journals, academic books, financial research reports, press, databases and websites. The use of this research will give the researcher a better insight to previous research works, Saunders et al (2009). 5.0 Difficulties and Limitations The only foresee able difficulty or limitation is access. This is one of the major considerations, and prospectively one of the biggest hurdles that might be encountered with regards to the feasibility of this research study. The access refers to respondents and necessary information for conducting the research. Also due to the nature of the research, the quality of the information gather might be exaggerated as a band wagon effect is normal in topics related to this and amongst the core respondents which will mostly be youths as they are the largest users of online social networks. 6.0 Timescale Due to the nature of the academic calendar, adequate timing will be allocated to each process and the final report will be submitted in accordance with the university approved time for submission of dissertation for the acquisition of an Msc. Degree in Marketing. 7.0 Cost The nature of this research to be carried out is limited, the only item to be produced are questionnaires for distribution so costing will be very minimal. 8.0 Outline Structure of the Proposed Research project Chapter 1: Introduction The research topic will be introduced and the reasons, aims and objectives of the research will be clearly stated and identified. The background of the topic will be stated justifying the need to identify and possibly understand the influence of culture. The introduction will also clearly outline the research design. Chapter 2: Literature Review At this stage of literature search, it is envisaged that previous work in these broad domains will form the foundations of the critical review of literature: Chapter 3: Methodology Primary and Secondary research will be used to analyse the research topic and this will be based on interviews and questionnaires. This approaches have been adopted as they are the most tried and tested form of research method used by academic writers on this subject matter. Chapter 4: Findings This chapter will be concerned with analysing and interpreting the information and data gathered for the research work with the aim of producing the findings of the research. Chapter 5: Conclusions The final section of the research project will do the three things normally expected in the formal conclusion of investigative study: summarise the key outcomes of research exercise; identify limitations inherent the planned research design and/or in what was actually achieved; Suggest further lines of enquiry that might be pursued in subsequent studies. References Alan R Andreasen. Journal of Public Policy Marketing. Chicago: Spring 2002. Vol. 21, Iss. 1; pg. 3, 11 pgs Arndt, J. (1967). Role of Product-Related Conversations in the Diffusion of a New Product. Journal of Marketing Research, 4, 291–95. Boyd, D. M. and Ellison, N. B. (2008), Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scholarship. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13: 210–230. doi: 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00393.x Buttle, Francis A. (1998) ‘Word of mouth: understanding and managing referral marketing’, Journal of Strategic Marketing, 6: 3, 241 — 254 Cassidy, J. (2006, May 15). Me media: How hanging out on the Internet became big business. The New Yorker, 82(13), 50. Chisnall, P. 2005, Marketing research, McGraw-Hill. Cox, D. F. (1963). The Audiences as Communicators. In S. A. Greyser (Ed.), Proceedings, American Marketing Association, December (pp. 58–72). Chicago: American Marketing Association Cohen, R. (2003, July 5). Livewire: Web sites try to make internet dating less creepy. Reuters. Retrieved April 5, 2010 from http://asia.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=internetNewsstoryID=3041934 Goldberg, S. (2007, May 13). Analysis: Friendster is doing just fine. Digital Media Wire. Retrieved April 7 2010 from http://www.dmwmedia.com/news/2007/05/14/analysis-friendster-is-doing-just-fine Haythornthwaite, C. (2005). Social networks and Internet connectivity effects. Information, Communication, Society, 8(2), 125–147. Herr, P.M., Kardes, F.R. and Kim, J. (1991) Effects of word-of-mouth and product attribute Information on persuasion: an accessibility-diagnosticity perspective. Journal of Consumer Research 17, 454–62. Leedy, P.D., Ormrod, J.E., 2005, Practical Research: Planning and Design. (8th ED). Pearson Merril Prentice Hall. New Jersey Littlejohn, S.W. (1990) Theories of Human Communication, 2nd edn. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. O’Shea, W. (2003, July 4-10). Six Degrees of sexual frustration: Connecting the dates with Friendster.com. Village Voice. Retrieved April 4, 2010 from http://www.villagevoice.com/news/0323,oshea, 44576, 1.html Pedro Domingos 2005, â€Å"Mining social networks for viral marketing†, IEEE Intelligent Systems, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 80-82. Saunders M., Lewis P. Thornhill A. (2007) Research Methods for Business Students. 4th Ed. New York: Financial Times Prentice Hall. Schiffman, L. G., Kanuk, L. L. (1995). Consumer Behaviour, 9th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Thonssen, L. and Beard, A.C. (1948) Speech Criticism: The Development of Standards for Rhetorical Appraisal. New York: Ronald Press. Volker Wiewer and Rolf Anweiler, December 2010, the European Social Media and Email Marketing Study – A 6 Country Study about the Digital Dialogue between Facebook, Twitter and Email (Part 2) (European Summary Consumer Results) London yengar, Raghuram, Han, Sangman and Gupta, Sunil, Do Friends Influence Purchases in a Social Network(February 26, 2009). Harvard Business School Marketing Unit Working Paper No. 09-123. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1392172 How to cite Social networks as an advertising-based model, Essay examples

Political Environment of Society

Question: How do Reciprocity and kinship Structures Maintain Balance in Indigenous Societies ? Answer: Introduction: Reciprocity can be described as the practice of exchanging things with other persons for mutual benefit, particularly the privileges that have been granted by one organization or country to the other. In case of the aboriginal society, reciprocity is considered as one of the underlying principles. In case of the aboriginal society, reciprocity has been present in the form of the exchange and the trade of tools and food to family and social relationships the political environment of society and the spiritual principles. In case of the aboriginal society, the principle of timelessness is central to reciprocity (Eleanor, 1998). It is believed that the spirit exists for now and also before and the creation is a current event as well as a historical event and in the same way, the law is for now and also for always. Therefore it can be briefly stated that it is the interconnectedness of all the things. Historically, in case of the aboriginal society reciprocity had been a source of cultura l, legal and political animosity and within the colonial Australia, it had been a source of mystification (Bill, 1998). The Australian aboriginal kinship system is considered as one of the most complex systems and it provides the basis of all social interaction that takes place in the aboriginal societies. The kinship system that is present in a particular tribe or language unit controls the interpersonal relationships of that tribe and it also guides the members of the tribe in their interactions with the other members of the tribe (Bourke and Cox, 1998). In this way, kinship system is present in every aspect of the social organization and structure of the aboriginal societies. As mentioned above, the kinship system is an integral part of the aboriginal societies. The members of the tribes are sorted into categories with names that are used by each tried. The relatives in law are generally placed in the same categories as the consanguine relations, although it is possible to give qualifying names to them. Ideally the husbands and wives are related to each other as kin, although it can be in a classif icatory sense instead of the real kinship (Bourke and Bill, 1998). Social: In case of social reciprocity, there are social obligations regarding the others who form a part of the globe and towards the other groups. In case of the aboriginal society, it is conceded that the person has a standing, and identity and the sense of belonging. In the society, a major concept is that of relatedness and due to this relatedness, each person is allowed to know how he is expected to act and to behave with the other persons of the group (Berndt, 1964). In this system, all the persons have a sense of group and personal identity due to which the emotional, psychological and the physical survival is protected and balanced in the society. This kinship reciprocity also extends to the orphans, widows and even to the outsiders and in this way helps in ensuring social equilibrium (Atkinson, 2002). The kinship reciprocity has significant impact on marriage, trade, rituals and territory. At the same time, it also included the acts like giving gifts, for instance, by a person when tools are initiated and in the same way, other treasured items can also be given as gifts the persons who have initiated him. In the same way, gifts can be given to the family of the future wife on betrothal (Bell, 1998). Similarly, the in-laws can also be given treasured items. In this example, the economic value of the gift is not of much consequence. What matters the most was the act of giving the gift. In this way, the reciprocity helped in strengthening the social bonds. In the same way, the food was also shared in the group, starting with those who have shared the food with the person in the past (Blake, 2001). The moral or the cultural laws were also affected by reciprocity, for example avenging the wrongdoing as some persons were distinguished to get punishment in accordance with kinship and sta tus. Hence, kinship also operated to act as a deterrent among the wrongdoers as at times even that close kin can be held liable for the offenses committed by a person. Social graces and reciprocity also acted as a system of checks and balances which help in maintaining social equilibrium (Bourke, Bourke and Edwards, 1994). Economic: In case of economic reciprocity, there is a relationship involved with the land, ecological sources and other groups. Because the aboriginal people were mainly nomadic people, they have a land and food management system which evolved on the basis of the control exploitation of the natural resources available to these people. With the help of systematic migration, the groups succeeded in living in a reciprocal arrangement with the land (Briskman, 2007). In the different seasons, these groups migrated to other areas, and use the natural resources of that area, generally within a radius of 5 km and later on they moved to another area when the resources of that area were depleted or reached the point of prohibition (Carrithers, Collins and Lukes, (eds) 1985). In this case the point of prohibition can be present in the form of the spiritual law or due to the directions of the elders and one such example that can be given in this regard is that of juvenile shellfish. Another activity which engendered reciprocity was that of hunting. In this case corporative strategies were used in hunting like using nets for catching a large number of animals or using the manipulative strategies like the encircling of the pray by a large number of hunters and then trapping them (Cowlishaw, 2004). In the same way, reciprocity was present in the eating of the pray. Therefore the structured and the systematic basis on which the parts of the animals would be eaten by which person were based on the rules of reciprocity and kinship. As the aboriginal people were not involved in conducting systematic agriculture or farming, the anthropologists believe that the adoption of the use of fire by the aboriginal people was a form of firestick farming due to which, it helped in regeneration in a reciprocal arrangement like the burning of large sections of mallee which in turn encourages the replenishment of lerp during the next year. It is also believed that women also actively replenished the environment when they were involved in the process of gathering. For instance, by replanting the yam or the seeds which then could be harvested on the next time when these people were in that area (Crawford, 2001). Among the aboriginal people, there was intensive trade of food, medicines, tools and weapons which shows reciprocity in the aboriginal economy. People used to exchange these items for the items that they needed (DeIshtar, 2005). For instances this reciprocity was shown by the groups who were living near water sources and they invited the other groups to feast whenever they got hold of any large mammal like a whale. Generally the other groups were invited with the help of smoke signals. It has been noted by some of the researchers that the groups that had abundance of particular resources like the yams or the commonly found seats had a distinct advantage as they can trade it with meat. In fact these groups were able to perform risk management whenever there was any danger of a drought. By forming alliances, they were involved in a strategic move for making sure that their reciprocal rights were protected during the times of scarcity (Drury and Voigt, 1999). Spiritual: A stewardship of the land is involved in case of spiritual reciprocity as the persons who are most connected with the land were also the best stewards of the land. It is commonly agreed by the anthropologists that there was no organized religion among the aboriginal society as the term is understood by the Western society. However, they unanimously knowledge that the aboriginal culture is based on a deep sense of spirituality (Dudgeon, Garvey and Pickett, (eds) 2000). There is a unifying concept of the world, which is lived and in which the religion is not present as an outside entity or system. In its place, the religion is encompassed in the people, language, place and art and music. At the same time, the culture in the aboriginal societies also encompassed the law, which is not considered to be separate from the civil, moral or the natural law. In reality, interconnectedness was present among all these things. As the law encompasses spirituality, it makes sure that all the people are aware of their responsibilities and relationships with the other people or their kin as well as with their country which includes the landforms, animals and water sources and also regarding their ongoing relationship that was present with the spirits of their ancestors (Farrelly, 2003). As compared to the other religions, in case of the indigenous Australians, spirituality means a reverence for life. On the other hand, the other religions make certain promises like life after death, nirvana or salvation which is not present in case of aboriginal spirituality. In this case, life has to be lived on the terms of the life along with its joy and suffering. The aboriginal spirituality believes that living itself is the expression of spirituality and as a result it needs to be celebrated (Fortes, 1987). The totemic relationship needs the the people should be aware of the ways in which they should take responsibility for relationships with species and totemic cites or the sacred site, in landscape and the related with the totemic ancestor. Generally the call made for the land rights of the originals is misunderstood by the colonial society as they were mainly concerned with the land as an economic resource that has to be used for producing a surplus and for gaining capital. Human beings were considered as a part of the systems but they are part of this balance and also a part of the universal reciprocity. It is believed by the people that all the species share the same responsibilities for their young, the old and towards each other and the society (Garroutte, 2003). All these things provide an evidence of the great responsibility and care in the cosmos. It is believed that no distinction is present between spiritual and secular law. The sacred rituals as well as the economic activit y are governed by the same law. In this context, the law is considered as highly practical and at the same time the accumulation of the knowledge gained by hundreds of generations (Havecker, 1987). The role of dispute resolution was assigned to the elders and they also have the responsibility of teaching, giving advice regarding marriage, partnership and they also assumed the responsibility for spiritual matters, sacred objects and different rituals (Hill, 2002). Political: among the political reciprocity there were the elements of respect and tradition. The one political tool of reciprocity was the use of fire which symbolizes the movement of people. In the same way, through fire, the other people come to know that some persons were moving across the land. In this way it acted as a way of communication and allowed the other persons to know where some of the families were. In the same way, the use of fire also allowed the persons to see the integrity of the landscape that was being maintained. In the same way, the continuity of tradition was symbolized by burning. This was used as a method of showing continuity with tradition or the old people. Reciprocity can be seen in the acts of burning fires. The country was left burning for many days and in this way, the dead people were allowed to hunt first. It was believed that the dead can also close the country which was seen by thick vegetation. The burning of the country also presented a pleasant smell and it was considered to please the gods and also the other human beings (Hiatt, 2006). In this way, burning was considered as a gift that was given to the land. When the land was not, it was considered as a dereliction of duty. In the same way, overgrowth providing a sign that the land was displaced by date was not the right of everyone to burn the country. Similarly all the land was not suitable for burning. Therefore when somebody burned to the unsuitable land, it was treated as causing pollution by the people who did not honor the land. While some of the land was burnt, but it was not hunted on. Generally this was due to the reason that the land was spiritual or it was the burial grounds of the ancestors. In this way, it can be considered as a form of prohibition. Similarly burning fires was a way through which the people decided their place in the society and the world. It was also a away to bring the past in the future and preserving the tradition (Holmes, 1992). Conclusion: It is believed by the aboriginal people that they are the stewards of land which is not common among other indigenous communities. Therefore even in cases where co-management policies have been implemented, generally the indigenous intellectual property was either marginalized or appropriated. Due to the considerable history of the outside agencies were trying to assert power on the travel resources and tribal authority, generally the tribal agencies were not ready to collaborate. As is the case with the state, the tribe had to deal with the vagaries of the political environment of a particular time (Isaacs, 1995). Historically, such a situation has resulted in a relationship between the state and the tribe and also the relationship between the tribe and the federal agencies to run hot and cold on several occasions. Some experts have emphasized on the fact that extended family is the basic principle of preservation economic life. Similarly, generosity is still highly valued even toda y as it was in the traditional way of life. Sharing food resources among the kin, whether they have been purchased or arrested by hunting and gathering, is still the operative force for the reservation residents. On the other hand, the agencies of the government are not forthcoming in recognizing the legitimacy of the aboriginal environmental practices or to include the perspectives of the aboriginals in the planning and management of the natural resources. References Atkinson, J. 2002, Trauma Trails, Recreating Song Lines: The Transgenerational Effects of Trauma in Indigenous Australia, Spinifex, Australia Bell, H. R. 1998, Mens Business, Womens Business: The Spiritual Role of Gender in the Worlds Oldest Culture, Inner Traditions International, Rochester, VT. Berndt, R. M C. H. , 1964, The World of the First Australians, Ure Smith Pty Ltd. Bill E, 1998, Living the Dreaming, in Aboriginal Australia 77, 81 (Colin Bourke, Eleanor Bourke Bill Edwards, eds. 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